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Friday, December 21, 2007
Thursday, December 20, 2007
رجال ونساء يرغبن في زواج مسيار
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Wednesday, December 19, 2007
Flower Specialization and Pollination
Each flower has a specific design which best encourages the transfer of its pollen. Cleistogamous flowers are self pollinated, after which, they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers. Entomophilous flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on their various parts that attract these animals. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects.
Morphology
The umbrella style flower of the Sarracenia genus.
Flowering plants are heterosporangiate, producing two types of reproductive spores. The pollen (male spores) and ovules (female spores) are produced in different organs, but the typical flower is a bisporangiate strobilus in that it contains both organs.
A flower is regarded as a modified stem with shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly modified leaves.[1] In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). Flowers may be attached to the plant in a few ways. If the flower has no stem but forms in the axil of a leaf, it is called sessile. When one flower is produced, the stem holding the flower is called a peduncle. If the peduncle ends with groups of flowers, each stem that holds a flower is called a pedicel. The flowering stem forms a terminal end which is called the torus or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:
An example of a perfect flower, this Crateva religiosa flower has both stamens (outer ring) and a pistil (center).
Calyx: the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
Corolla: the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house): one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house): one or more pistils. The female reproductive organ is the carpel: this contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material.
Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots.
In the majority of species individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either female or male the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is considered monoecious.
Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis—so-called composite flowers—the collection of flowers is termed an inflorescence; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a ‘‘flower’’ is. In botanical terminology, a single daisy or sunflower for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced—the flower is called regular or actinomorphic, e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
Floral formula
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of three ) Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A∞ = many stamens)G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 = monocarpous)
x: to represent a "variable number"∞: to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca5Co5A10 - ∞G1
Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see Key to Floral Formulas).
Pollination
Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits
Main article: pollination
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Flowers are the reproductive organs and mediate the joining of the sperm contained within pollen to the ovules, normally from one plant to another but many plants also can pollinate there own flowers. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors to move pollen between flowers, including the wind and animals, especially insects. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.
Attraction methods
Bee orchid mimics a female bee in order to attract a male bee pollinator
Plants can not move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Latin. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees having color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible to us or only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called Carrion flowers including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous: flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.
Anemophilous: flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.
Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations.
Fertilization and dispersal
Main article: biological dispersal
In this picture you can clearly see the stamens of the flower
Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality).
Evolution
Flowers in Kamakura, Japan
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed...but not, yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo, conifers (like pines and fir trees). The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[2] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics)[3][4] show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[5] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.
Various flower colors and shapes
A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.
Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids[6], which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification.
The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[7] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[8]
Development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, when there is a loss of B-gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ.
Flowering transition
The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in plant hormones levels and seasonable temperature and photoperiodchanges. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds.[9] Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue. Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.
Symbolism
Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection
Flowers inspire decorative motives
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the UK, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.
Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art.
Flowers are common subjects of still lifes, such as this one by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art.
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
Chinese Jade ornament with flower design, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.[10] Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[11] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[12]
Usage
Flowers are beloved for their various fragrances
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or Christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
As tokens of love or esteem
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade.
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. Bee Pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy).
Flowers can also be made into herbal teas. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.
See also
Morphology
The umbrella style flower of the Sarracenia genus.
Flowering plants are heterosporangiate, producing two types of reproductive spores. The pollen (male spores) and ovules (female spores) are produced in different organs, but the typical flower is a bisporangiate strobilus in that it contains both organs.
A flower is regarded as a modified stem with shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly modified leaves.[1] In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate). Flowers may be attached to the plant in a few ways. If the flower has no stem but forms in the axil of a leaf, it is called sessile. When one flower is produced, the stem holding the flower is called a peduncle. If the peduncle ends with groups of flowers, each stem that holds a flower is called a pedicel. The flowering stem forms a terminal end which is called the torus or receptacle. The parts of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:
An example of a perfect flower, this Crateva religiosa flower has both stamens (outer ring) and a pistil (center).
Calyx: the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in some species.
Corolla: the whorl of petals, which are usually thin, soft and colored to attract insects that help the process of pollination.
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house): one or two whorls of stamens, each a filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male gametes.
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house): one or more pistils. The female reproductive organ is the carpel: this contains an ovary with ovules (which contain female gametes). A pistil may consist of a number of carpels merged together, in which case there is only one pistil to each flower, or of a single individual carpel (the flower is then called apocarpous). The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carrying the reproductive material.
Although the floral structure described above is considered the "typical" structural plan, plant species show a wide variety of modifications from this plan. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species. For example, the two subclasses of flowering plants may be distinguished by the number of floral organs in each whorl: dicotyledons typically having 4 or 5 organs (or a multiple of 4 or 5) in each whorl and monocotyledons having three or some multiple of three. The number of carpels in a compound pistil may be only two, or otherwise not related to the above generalization for monocots and dicots.
In the majority of species individual flowers have both pistils and stamens as described above. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts. In the latter case, if an individual plant is either female or male the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is considered monoecious.
Additional discussions on floral modifications from the basic plan are presented in the articles on each of the basic parts of the flower. In those species that have more than one flower on an axis—so-called composite flowers—the collection of flowers is termed an inflorescence; this term can also refer to the specific arrangements of flowers on a stem. In this regard, care must be exercised in considering what a ‘‘flower’’ is. In botanical terminology, a single daisy or sunflower for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous tiny flowers (sometimes called florets). Each of these flowers may be anatomically as described above. Many flowers have a symmetry, if the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced—the flower is called regular or actinomorphic, e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
Floral formula
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of three ) Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A∞ = many stamens)G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 = monocarpous)
x: to represent a "variable number"∞: to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca5Co5A10 - ∞G1
Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see Key to Floral Formulas).
Pollination
Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits
Main article: pollination
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Flowers are the reproductive organs and mediate the joining of the sperm contained within pollen to the ovules, normally from one plant to another but many plants also can pollinate there own flowers. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors to move pollen between flowers, including the wind and animals, especially insects. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.
Attraction methods
Bee orchid mimics a female bee in order to attract a male bee pollinator
Plants can not move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Latin. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees having color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible to us or only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans, a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called Carrion flowers including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous: flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flower rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.
Anemophilous: flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.
Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations.
Fertilization and dispersal
Main article: biological dispersal
In this picture you can clearly see the stamens of the flower
Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality).
Evolution
Flowers in Kamakura, Japan
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants -- and some animals -- can simply scatter out little living copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants, such as the modern fern, are thought to have reproduced. But plants soon began protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed...but not, yet, flowers. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo, conifers (like pines and fir trees). The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[2] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics)[3][4] show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[5] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.
Various flower colors and shapes
A Syrphid fly on a Grape hyacinth
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve other animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.
Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland animals and spread, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids[6], which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification.
The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[7] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[8]
Development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, when there is a loss of B-gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ.
Flowering transition
The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that will ensure maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in plant hormones levels and seasonable temperature and photoperiodchanges. Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals through genes such as CONSTANS and FLC ensures that flowering occurs at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds.[9] Flower formation is initiated at the ends of stems, and involves a number of different physiological and morphological changes. The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue. Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.
Symbolism
Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection
Flowers inspire decorative motives
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the UK, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.
Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art.
Flowers are common subjects of still lifes, such as this one by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art.
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
Chinese Jade ornament with flower design, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.[10] Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[11] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[12]
Usage
Flowers are beloved for their various fragrances
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or Christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
As tokens of love or esteem
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade.
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. Bee Pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy).
Flowers can also be made into herbal teas. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.
See also
Monday, December 17, 2007
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شرطي اغتصب ابن خالته داخل السيارةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11917#11917علاج نفسك بنفسك بالاعشاب والطب البديل قسم خاص بالعلاج بالاعشابhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/aashabيعاشر اخت زوجته القاصر ويوعدها بالزواجhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11906#11906قتلت طفلها الرضيع ورمته في الصرف الصحي بمساعدة امهاوجدتهاhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11907#11907اعتقال اكثر من 170فتاة في شبكة دعارة في دبيhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11908#11908انتشار بيوت الدعارة في دبيhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11909#11909اغتصب خطيبته مع7 من اصدقائه اكثر من 14مرةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11910#11910شاهد بالصور عقوية سارق الجوالhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11911#11911
سعودي يواجه اتهاما بالاعتداء الجنسي على عمانية بكهف ثلجي في دبيhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11835#11835متطرفون بسوريا يستهدفون مناطق حساسة للفتيات بحرقها بالأسيد
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عريس يكسر عظم زوجته ليلة فرحهما تنفيذا لامر والدتهhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11836#11836لقبض على مصري مارس الفاحشة مع ابنته 4 سنوات بمعرفة والدتها
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مصري يستعين بشرطي و11 من أصدقائه لإغتصاب زوجته
http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11832#11832
محكمة سعودية تأمر بحبس وجلد فتاة تعرضت لخطف واغتصاب جماعيhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11833#11833
جندي امريكي انتحروا بسبب حرب العراقhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11830#11830كيفيةاستخدم فرشاة الأسنان والخيط بشكل صحيح ( بالصور) http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11823#11823المدينة الجامعية بدمشق تتحول من سكن لبناة المستقبل إلى وكر للدعارةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11815#11815أسرار الشفاء بالاعشاب الطبيعية للمصابين بالسكر.... http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11826#11826
انتهاك عرض رجل مصري من رجال الشرطةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11816#11816فتى فرنسي اغتصبه 3 إماراتيين في دبي يواجه خطر الإصابة بالإيدزhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11817#11817
انتقادات حادة لطبيب افتتح عيادة لعلاج الشذوذ الجنسي بالقاهرة والشواذ اتخذوها مكانا للتعارفhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11811#11811الوليد بن طلال يشتري أكبر طائرة ركاب في العالم لاستخدامه الشخصي
http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2508لماذا اطلق اسم ضرس العقل ؟ وكم عدد ضروس العقل ؟
صور لحديقة الحب في تايلاند .. مناظر رائعةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11813#11813
عقار أنتجته شركة سعودية لعلاج الصلع وتساقط الشعر يثير اهتمام العلماء في الغربhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2499مشعوذ تونسي يخرج الجان من جسد النساء بالاعتداء الجنسيhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2498القبض على فلسطيني في القاهرة حاول التحرش بنانسي عجرمhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2497ملياردير مصري ينوي إطلاق فضائيتين لمواجهة تزايد المحجبات بالhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2496
كويتي يضبط زوجته وعشيقها في فراشهhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11726#11726
العروس شنقت نفسها بعد شهرين لتتخلص من جحيم حماتها
http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11727#11727سكارى يقتحمون مسجدا بالكويت ويضربون من فيه واصابة 71 شخصاhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?p=11728#11728
بعد اغتصابها من قبل والدها أنجبت طفلاً وهي بالخامسة عشرة منhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2491امرأة ماليزية تعاشر ضيف البيت على سبيل الخطأ ظنا منها أنه زوجهاhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2489كويتى يستعين بأصدقائه ويعتدى جنسيا على نجلى شقيقهhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2488سورى يستدرج فتاة سعودية ويغتصبها بالقوةhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=248765حماراً على موائد إفطار الصائمين في تونس http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2486سعودي يغتصب سيدة في مشفى حكومي بالرياضhttp://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=2490
20موقع جنسي + صور جنسية + افلام جنس http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=1956 اربع صور عارية000000 ؟ ؟ سارعوا قبل الحذف0
http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=686
مدير يغتصب سكرتيرته بالاتفاق مع موظفيه بعد ان خدروها http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=1873
فتاة تموت بسب قبلة http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=1892 انواع المكاوي بالصور http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=900 اب يغتصب ابته عشر سنوات كامله http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=1879
فتاه تموت في حمام المدرسه****
http://www.arabzwaj.com/welcome/viewtopic.php?t=1894 عرب زواج افضل موقع للتعارف من اجل الزواج الشرعي علي النت www.arabzwaj.com ismailia
My PC Has Adware, What Should I Do?
I gotta tell ya, when I first got my computer when it was brand new, it worked like a charm! Then as I got a little bit more familiar with it, friends and family suggested I try some online applications. One was this cute purple ape that would help you surf the net.. or so I thought.
Turns out that damn application, along with a few others I installed, what were supposed to help increase my productivity, ended up doing exactly the opposite!
Sound familiar to you? Well, if so, then your not alone. Millions of computer users around the world have their PC’s infected with adware, and don’t even know it. What’s adware you say? Well, its any application that records what you do (or do not do) and reports that data back to third party vendors.
Now I know this sounds like covert ops stuff, but its really big business. See, the truth of the matter is these advertisers make a lot of money off of knowing your computer habits. Things like, where you go, what you do, how long your there, where you clicked, etc. Its kind of scary when you think about it.They come up with the applications that are usually disguised as innocent toolbars or programs that will show you the weather, etc. Once you install these things, they leach and lurk throughout your machine, slowing it down to no end.
They don’t care that you may have work to do, a report for school, or if your playing a game. Their job is to report back to their vendors what your doing, and how you do it. This way, these advertisers can come up with better targeted ads that will be used to get you to click on this link, or buy this product.
There is hope though, and it can return your computer back to you, the rightful owner. You can download to your PC some adware removal tools that will take out all of the know adware off your machine, and in the process, speed it up too.
It’s usually a quick download and install, and the applications are easy to use. Usually you let it scan your machine for a list of known offenders, and it does the rest, scouring your machine looking for them. When it does find any, it makes a list of what adware you have, what it does, and flags it for removal.
All you need to do then is say yes, and it takes them out fast. Then you just reboot your machine, and waalaa! Fast and fun computing just like your used to.
So there is light at the end of the tunnel for your PC. Now you know, so go get your PC scanned and cleaned today.
Turns out that damn application, along with a few others I installed, what were supposed to help increase my productivity, ended up doing exactly the opposite!
Sound familiar to you? Well, if so, then your not alone. Millions of computer users around the world have their PC’s infected with adware, and don’t even know it. What’s adware you say? Well, its any application that records what you do (or do not do) and reports that data back to third party vendors.
Now I know this sounds like covert ops stuff, but its really big business. See, the truth of the matter is these advertisers make a lot of money off of knowing your computer habits. Things like, where you go, what you do, how long your there, where you clicked, etc. Its kind of scary when you think about it.They come up with the applications that are usually disguised as innocent toolbars or programs that will show you the weather, etc. Once you install these things, they leach and lurk throughout your machine, slowing it down to no end.
They don’t care that you may have work to do, a report for school, or if your playing a game. Their job is to report back to their vendors what your doing, and how you do it. This way, these advertisers can come up with better targeted ads that will be used to get you to click on this link, or buy this product.
There is hope though, and it can return your computer back to you, the rightful owner. You can download to your PC some adware removal tools that will take out all of the know adware off your machine, and in the process, speed it up too.
It’s usually a quick download and install, and the applications are easy to use. Usually you let it scan your machine for a list of known offenders, and it does the rest, scouring your machine looking for them. When it does find any, it makes a list of what adware you have, what it does, and flags it for removal.
All you need to do then is say yes, and it takes them out fast. Then you just reboot your machine, and waalaa! Fast and fun computing just like your used to.
So there is light at the end of the tunnel for your PC. Now you know, so go get your PC scanned and cleaned today.
Virus or Spyware - What's the Difference?
This month's article is one of the things I still find comes up as a frequent question, "what's the difference between Viruses and Spyware"? I will try and clarify that here. One of the biggest slowdowns of a PC is caused by viruses, adware or spyware as it's often called. Before you can benefit from any other optimisation tips or improvements you really need a system relatively free from those pests. A virus is a piece of malicious software code written to cause some kind of damage to a computer system or network or even the Internet itself. Viruses spread, similar to their biological namesake, from one machine to another and can spread havoc wherever they go. They are most commonly spread by sharing files with others or through email attachments where they can be set up to send themselves to all the addresses in your email address book. Adware is usually dowloaded and installed along with some other program without your knowledge and unlike a virus doesn't spread by itself. Very often you click "OK" without reading the terms and conditions and by doing so you agree to have the files installed. An example is you see a "free" program on offer that you think might be useful and download it without thinking. Even some anti-spyware programs install adware and the website earns money from the ads that are clicked on. The catch is that the extra files introduced are used to determine things like your surfing habits and the data is used to serve up popup ads or redirect your browser to a page other than the one you wanted. Some of the programs can be used to install keyloggers which can send back information about passwords and bank details etc. Adware is not a security problem it is more an annoyance especially when you have ten different programs trying show ads. The amount of computer resources it uses up slows your system to a crawl. Spyware is more malicious and evil intentioned and is designed to steal something from you. It can be downloaded by visitingthe wrong types of websites or along with other files the same way as adware. Spyware can often be hard to remove as it can continually recreate itself and hide somewhere on your hard drive. Programs such as trojans can be used to allow access to hackers at a later date. From the story of the Trojan horse where the Greeks hid inside the wooden horse left as a peace offering and were wheeled into the fort by the Trojans themselves. Then at night the Greeks crept out of the horse and opened the gates and let the enemy in. Trojans and adware unlike viruses don't spread themselves. It is wise to run more than one spyware checker as no one system gets rid of them all. You can never be certain you have every one removed because new ones may not have been discovered and the Spyware program doesn't recognise it yet. I use the two free ones "Spybot search and destroy" and "Adaware 6.0" and I also use Counter Spy which comes from a reputable company that specialises in removing spyware. Sometimes people say to me "doesn't my anti-virus software remove spyware"? Well the answer is most don't and even if it does I always find a specialist product works best. Beware also of bogus spyware scanners available on-line which actually install their own spyware once they have removed their competitors. Sometimes you run a free scan and it finds all sorts of nasties but you will have to sign up and pay to remove them. I have even seen it that they find things that don't exist or try to frighten people into believing they have lots of spyware when all they have are advertising cookies. Cookies are small text files that websites leave on your system so that when you return they can customise the page that loads or they can count you as a returning visitor. They are harmless and most of them are useful. They can be easily removed by deleting them in your browser settings. So you need to be running a suitable and up to date antivirus program and one or more Spyware checkers.
Are You Safe from Hackers?
We don't use E-gold very often since most of our online business and customer sales are conducted through our online merchant account. However, we occasionally have someone who will request paying by E-gold so we keep an account there for this reason. Once a month or so we withdraw the funds and decided to do so yesterday. Imagine our dismay when we logged into our E-gold account yesterday and found our balance to be a big fat ZERO! We had checked the balance just a few days ago so we knew this was not correct. After investigating the history of the account, we found that a spend had been made to another e-gold account user WITHOUT our knowledge or authorization. We had been hacked! Since we have up to date anti-virus and firewall software on our computer, we assumed we were safe. Not so! It seems this is not enough to keep away the hackers as the software does not prevent "Spyware" from being installed on your computer. "Spyware" is software that gets onto your computer and literally "spies" on your activities. The spying can range from relatively harmless use of cookies tracking you across multiple websites... to extremely dangerous "keystroke loggers" which record passwords, credit cards, and other personal data. That data then gets relayed to the person who put the software on your computer. Spyware gets on your computer in one of several different ways. First, it rides along with software you download from the 'Net and install on your system. Second, they come as email attachments (much like viruses) and automatically install themselves on your computer when you open the email message. Third, hackers find an open port on your computer and use the "back door" to install basically anything they want. And fourth, the more malicious types, like keystroke loggers, can even get installed by someone with direct physical access to your computer such as an employer, suspicious spouse, business competitor, or someone who wants to know exactly what you're doing. So how do you protect yourself against these malicious hackers? You need a program that specifically scans your system for the tens-of-thousands of existing spyware programs along with the new ones appearing daily. Below are two programs which specifically check for and remove spyware from your system: "Spybot Search & Destroy" - www.safer-networking.org "Ad Aware" - www.lavasoft.de/software/adaware/ You may have spyware lurking on your computer right now so protect yourself today by downloading one of the above programs! As a point of reference, we contacted E-gold and informed them that we had been hacked. We provided them with the account number of the person who received the funds and asked for a contact e-mail address on the person. E-gold informed us that they could not provide that information without a "court order" and that basically there was no way of getting the money back! Take action today to protect yourself from this growing threat! The bottom line is: - Keep your anti-virus program current - Install a firewall- Carefully screen software before installing it- Scan specifically for spyware weekly- Stay current on this growing threat. About the Author: Charles & Susan Truett are experienced internet marketers who have built a successful online business and are now teaching others how to achieve the same success. For more information on how to make money at home visit:www.partnersinsuccess.net
Everything you wanted to know, but were afraid to ask
When Intel's Pat Gelsinger finally acknowledged the existence of Larrabee at last week's IDF, he didn't exactly clear up very much about the project. In fact, some of his comments left close Larrabee-watchers more confused about the scope and nature of the project than ever before. I count myself among the folks that were thrown off a bit by what little we heard about Intel's forthcoming "many-core" coprocessor, so I did some digging and asking around in an effort to get a bit more clarity.
What I found is that the truth is out there—you just have to take a few steps back and look at the big picture. Intel's direct and indirect statements on Larrabee paint a pretty coherent picture, a picture that's only muddied when one starts parsing any one spokesperson's words too carefully. In this article, I attempt to put together a the pieces of the Larrabee puzzle that have been laying around mostly in plain sight, while filling in the gaps with email correspondence that I've had with people who know more than I do about the project and the topic of 3D rendering. So read on for everything you ever wanted to know about Larrabee, but were afraid to ask Intel.
On the relationship between Larrabee and the 80-core Terascale project
Before I get into the meat of this article's discussion of Larrabee, let me clear something up for the journalist types who aren't going to read any further than the first half of the first page: If I see or hear another press person get Larrabee mixed up with Intel's 80-core Terascale research project, my head is going to explode. Larrabee is not the Terascale chip, and the Terascale chip is not Larrabee. In fact, the Terascale chip is not a product at all, but a research initiative involving multiple parts of Intel. The goal of this initiative is not to produce a shipping product—not even one called "the Terascale chip," as cool as that sounds—but to explore and develop various (mostly interconnect-related) technologies that might eventually find their way into future, as-yet-undesigned Intel products.
What is Larrabee?
From what has been revealed so far, "Larrabee" appears to be the codename for a so-called "many-core"* architecture that will include a variety of actual products and implementations. So just like the name "Intel Core Microarchitecture" designates the multicore architecture that underlies the Core 2 Duo (mobile and desktop), Core 2 Quad, Core 2 Extreme, and Xeon lines of processors, the many-core architecture that currently goes by the temporary codename of "Larrabee" will eventually be implemented in a number of products with different core counts aimed at different markets.
As far as we know, devices based on the Larrabee architecture will have the following hardware characteristics in common:
Larrabee parts will have ten or more in-order cores per die. Each of these cores will have its own split L1 cache (instruction/data), and will support up to four simultaneous threads of execution. The cores will implement a subset of the x86 ISA that includes some GPU-specific extensions. The cores will also have a super-wide 512-bit vector FPU that's capable of processing sixteen-element floating-point vectors (single precision), along with support for control flow instructions (loops and branches) and some scalar computations.
All of the cores will also share a large pool of L2 cache. Like the number of cores, the size of this shared pool of L2 will depend on the particular product. The L2 cache will be used by the cores for communication, and there will be some kind of partitioning mechanism that will probably let a core lock a portion of the L2 that it can use for streaming data. (This would prevent a core from dirtying the L2 by moving data through the L2 rapidly. See the cache locking mechanisms included in IBM-designed CPUs that power the GameCube, Wii, and Xbox 360.)
Along with the cores and the large chunk of L2, Larrabee products will include both a memory controller and a "fixed-function unit." The nature of this fixed-function unit will vary with the Larrabee product, so that a Larrabee GPU might have raster hardware in that slot, while a Larrabee server coprocessor might have a hardware encryption unit there.
*Note: "Multicore" typically means from two to eight cores. When you get above eight, you get into "many-core" territory. These terms are fairly new though, and they're in a bit of flux, so don't take this as gospel.
What I found is that the truth is out there—you just have to take a few steps back and look at the big picture. Intel's direct and indirect statements on Larrabee paint a pretty coherent picture, a picture that's only muddied when one starts parsing any one spokesperson's words too carefully. In this article, I attempt to put together a the pieces of the Larrabee puzzle that have been laying around mostly in plain sight, while filling in the gaps with email correspondence that I've had with people who know more than I do about the project and the topic of 3D rendering. So read on for everything you ever wanted to know about Larrabee, but were afraid to ask Intel.
On the relationship between Larrabee and the 80-core Terascale project
Before I get into the meat of this article's discussion of Larrabee, let me clear something up for the journalist types who aren't going to read any further than the first half of the first page: If I see or hear another press person get Larrabee mixed up with Intel's 80-core Terascale research project, my head is going to explode. Larrabee is not the Terascale chip, and the Terascale chip is not Larrabee. In fact, the Terascale chip is not a product at all, but a research initiative involving multiple parts of Intel. The goal of this initiative is not to produce a shipping product—not even one called "the Terascale chip," as cool as that sounds—but to explore and develop various (mostly interconnect-related) technologies that might eventually find their way into future, as-yet-undesigned Intel products.
What is Larrabee?
From what has been revealed so far, "Larrabee" appears to be the codename for a so-called "many-core"* architecture that will include a variety of actual products and implementations. So just like the name "Intel Core Microarchitecture" designates the multicore architecture that underlies the Core 2 Duo (mobile and desktop), Core 2 Quad, Core 2 Extreme, and Xeon lines of processors, the many-core architecture that currently goes by the temporary codename of "Larrabee" will eventually be implemented in a number of products with different core counts aimed at different markets.
As far as we know, devices based on the Larrabee architecture will have the following hardware characteristics in common:
Larrabee parts will have ten or more in-order cores per die. Each of these cores will have its own split L1 cache (instruction/data), and will support up to four simultaneous threads of execution. The cores will implement a subset of the x86 ISA that includes some GPU-specific extensions. The cores will also have a super-wide 512-bit vector FPU that's capable of processing sixteen-element floating-point vectors (single precision), along with support for control flow instructions (loops and branches) and some scalar computations.
All of the cores will also share a large pool of L2 cache. Like the number of cores, the size of this shared pool of L2 will depend on the particular product. The L2 cache will be used by the cores for communication, and there will be some kind of partitioning mechanism that will probably let a core lock a portion of the L2 that it can use for streaming data. (This would prevent a core from dirtying the L2 by moving data through the L2 rapidly. See the cache locking mechanisms included in IBM-designed CPUs that power the GameCube, Wii, and Xbox 360.)
Along with the cores and the large chunk of L2, Larrabee products will include both a memory controller and a "fixed-function unit." The nature of this fixed-function unit will vary with the Larrabee product, so that a Larrabee GPU might have raster hardware in that slot, while a Larrabee server coprocessor might have a hardware encryption unit there.
*Note: "Multicore" typically means from two to eight cores. When you get above eight, you get into "many-core" territory. These terms are fairly new though, and they're in a bit of flux, so don't take this as gospel.
Islamic scholars say its time for dialogue with the West about offensive cartoons
NADIA ABOU EL-MAGD
Associated Press Writer Cairo, Egypt (AP)
Islamic scholars at a conference on the continuing furor over caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad said it is time to stop protests and boycotts ae for dialogue with the West about offensive cartoons By nd instead enter a dialogue with the West in order to explain the prophet's importance to Muslims.At a Friday conference, about 40 Muslim scholars from across the Islamic world signed a declaration appealing to Muslims "to exercise self restraint in accordance with the teachings of Islam.""We reject countering an act of aggression by actions not sanctioned by Islam," the statement said, alluding to the publication of the cartoons and the subsequent violent protests.The statement also appealed to the Danish government and people "to apologize, condemn and bring to an end this attack."The Muslim world has been outraged by the drawings, first published in a Danish paper last September then reprinted in European papers in recent weeks in the name of press freedoms. Some protests have turned violent _ including one on Friday in Libya in which at least 10 people were killed _ and the tension has noticeably increased anti-Western sentiments in the Muslim world.
Islam widely holds that representations of Muhammad are banned out of reverence and for fear they could lead to idolatry."It is our duty and responsibility to move on to the stage of discussion and inform the world about our Prophet by disseminating and making known his character traits, noble qualities and high moral standards," the conference statement said.Amr Khaled, a 38-year-old moderate Egyptian preacher, told reporters after the conference that peaceful protests were inevitable but it was time to move forward.
"It is a sign that the Islamic community is alive. The boycott was a must _ but now it is time for dialogue," he said.Egypt's mufti, Ali Gomaa, emphasized the forgiving nature of the Prophet but added: "We won't stop supporting our Prophet, and preaching for God, in a gentle way."
Abla el-Kahlawy, a veiled dean of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar University, was angrier."Our taboos and sanctities have been violated, I'm appealing to intellectuals and the wise in the world to stop the mutual hatred and ... enmities that are pushing the world to the edge," she said. "What is the aim of violating what is held sacred by more than 1 billion Muslims?"But Khaled, the Egyptian preacher, said he's ready to go to Copenhagen, with other scholars and Muslim youth, to discuss the problem.
"The deep-rooted solution of this problem is through dialogue to reach an understanding and coexistence between the nations," Khaled said.Also Friday, a Danish church delegation met with Egyptian religious leaders in an effort to help reduce the tension and correct misunderstandings, said delegation member Harald Nielsen."We want to reveal our friendship with the Muslims and Christians in Egypt," said Nielsen, secretary in the Middle East for a Danish NGO called Danmission. "We do not agree on the cartoons published by the Danish newspaper, and we were insulted by them."The church delegation is on a three-day visit to Egypt at the initiative of Danmission.
Associated Press Writer Cairo, Egypt (AP)
Islamic scholars at a conference on the continuing furor over caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad said it is time to stop protests and boycotts ae for dialogue with the West about offensive cartoons By nd instead enter a dialogue with the West in order to explain the prophet's importance to Muslims.At a Friday conference, about 40 Muslim scholars from across the Islamic world signed a declaration appealing to Muslims "to exercise self restraint in accordance with the teachings of Islam.""We reject countering an act of aggression by actions not sanctioned by Islam," the statement said, alluding to the publication of the cartoons and the subsequent violent protests.The statement also appealed to the Danish government and people "to apologize, condemn and bring to an end this attack."The Muslim world has been outraged by the drawings, first published in a Danish paper last September then reprinted in European papers in recent weeks in the name of press freedoms. Some protests have turned violent _ including one on Friday in Libya in which at least 10 people were killed _ and the tension has noticeably increased anti-Western sentiments in the Muslim world.
Islam widely holds that representations of Muhammad are banned out of reverence and for fear they could lead to idolatry."It is our duty and responsibility to move on to the stage of discussion and inform the world about our Prophet by disseminating and making known his character traits, noble qualities and high moral standards," the conference statement said.Amr Khaled, a 38-year-old moderate Egyptian preacher, told reporters after the conference that peaceful protests were inevitable but it was time to move forward.
"It is a sign that the Islamic community is alive. The boycott was a must _ but now it is time for dialogue," he said.Egypt's mufti, Ali Gomaa, emphasized the forgiving nature of the Prophet but added: "We won't stop supporting our Prophet, and preaching for God, in a gentle way."
Abla el-Kahlawy, a veiled dean of Islamic Studies at Al-Azhar University, was angrier."Our taboos and sanctities have been violated, I'm appealing to intellectuals and the wise in the world to stop the mutual hatred and ... enmities that are pushing the world to the edge," she said. "What is the aim of violating what is held sacred by more than 1 billion Muslims?"But Khaled, the Egyptian preacher, said he's ready to go to Copenhagen, with other scholars and Muslim youth, to discuss the problem.
"The deep-rooted solution of this problem is through dialogue to reach an understanding and coexistence between the nations," Khaled said.Also Friday, a Danish church delegation met with Egyptian religious leaders in an effort to help reduce the tension and correct misunderstandings, said delegation member Harald Nielsen."We want to reveal our friendship with the Muslims and Christians in Egypt," said Nielsen, secretary in the Middle East for a Danish NGO called Danmission. "We do not agree on the cartoons published by the Danish newspaper, and we were insulted by them."The church delegation is on a three-day visit to Egypt at the initiative of Danmission.
عضوية مميزة مجانية
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
بناء علي رغبة الاعضاء وبمناسبة عيد الاضحي المبارك والاعام الجديد وقرب حلول اجازة نصف العام وحرصا منا علي اسعاد جميع الاعضاء واسهاما من في حل مشكلة العنوسة قررت ادارة موقع عرب زواج فتح باب العضوية المجانية لجميع الاعضاء وذلك بداية من 17.12.2007م وذلك لفترة غير محدودة سارع بالتسجيل الان
وحرصا من ادارة الموقع علي اعضائنا الاعزاء ولكي لا نخل بسياسة الموقع اتخذنا بعض الاجراءات لكي تتمكن من تحويل عضويتك المميزة الي مجانية وهي:-
كل عضو يرغب في تحويل عضويته من مميزة الي مجانية يرسل رسالة الي arabzwaj@yahoo.comشروط العضوية المميزة1- التسجيل في منتدي عرب زواج وارسال ثلاثة مواضيع مفيدة في اي قسم من الاقساميكون عنوان هذة الرسالة طلب اشتراك مميزيذكر راسل الاميل السبب في العضوية المميزةان يكون هدف العضو هو الزواج فقط ان يذكر العضو اسمه المشترك به في الموقعاي عضو يخالف التعليمات سيتم حذفه نهائيا من الموقع من حق عرب زواج حذف اي عضو بدون ابداء اي سبب ان يكون اسم العضو المسجل به لائقان تكون بيانات العضو كاملة ولائقه ولا تحتوي علي اي كلام غير لائقان يكون اسم العضو المسجل بيه لا يزيد عن 12 حرفوذلك ادارة عرب زواج تهيب بجميع الاعضاء بمراقبة جميع بيانات الاعضاء وارسال بيانات الاعضاء المخالفين ليتم حذفهم فورا
واذا صدر اي شكوي من اي عضو سيتم البحث في مصداقية الشكوي وحذف العضو فورا
وادارة موقع عرب زواج تحذر جميع الاخوات بضرورة عدم اعطاء ارقام جوالات او تليفونات لاي عضو يرغب في الزواج الا عن طريق ولي امرها
وايضا عدم عمل محادثة مع الشباب من خلال الشات بغرض التعارف من اجل الزواج الا في وجود ولي امرها
ادارة موقع عرب زواج غير مسؤلة عن سؤء استخدام الموقع من بعض الاعضاء
بناء علي رغبة الاعضاء وبمناسبة عيد الاضحي المبارك والاعام الجديد وقرب حلول اجازة نصف العام وحرصا منا علي اسعاد جميع الاعضاء واسهاما من في حل مشكلة العنوسة قررت ادارة موقع عرب زواج فتح باب العضوية المجانية لجميع الاعضاء وذلك بداية من 17.12.2007م وذلك لفترة غير محدودة سارع بالتسجيل الان
وحرصا من ادارة الموقع علي اعضائنا الاعزاء ولكي لا نخل بسياسة الموقع اتخذنا بعض الاجراءات لكي تتمكن من تحويل عضويتك المميزة الي مجانية وهي:-
كل عضو يرغب في تحويل عضويته من مميزة الي مجانية يرسل رسالة الي arabzwaj@yahoo.comشروط العضوية المميزة1- التسجيل في منتدي عرب زواج وارسال ثلاثة مواضيع مفيدة في اي قسم من الاقساميكون عنوان هذة الرسالة طلب اشتراك مميزيذكر راسل الاميل السبب في العضوية المميزةان يكون هدف العضو هو الزواج فقط ان يذكر العضو اسمه المشترك به في الموقعاي عضو يخالف التعليمات سيتم حذفه نهائيا من الموقع من حق عرب زواج حذف اي عضو بدون ابداء اي سبب ان يكون اسم العضو المسجل به لائقان تكون بيانات العضو كاملة ولائقه ولا تحتوي علي اي كلام غير لائقان يكون اسم العضو المسجل بيه لا يزيد عن 12 حرفوذلك ادارة عرب زواج تهيب بجميع الاعضاء بمراقبة جميع بيانات الاعضاء وارسال بيانات الاعضاء المخالفين ليتم حذفهم فورا
واذا صدر اي شكوي من اي عضو سيتم البحث في مصداقية الشكوي وحذف العضو فورا
وادارة موقع عرب زواج تحذر جميع الاخوات بضرورة عدم اعطاء ارقام جوالات او تليفونات لاي عضو يرغب في الزواج الا عن طريق ولي امرها
وايضا عدم عمل محادثة مع الشباب من خلال الشات بغرض التعارف من اجل الزواج الا في وجود ولي امرها
ادارة موقع عرب زواج غير مسؤلة عن سؤء استخدام الموقع من بعض الاعضاء
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